Appendix 1: Glossary

Appendix 1: Glossary

Hadron: A particle composed of a collection of elementary particles, such as quarks, that are held together by a strong nuclear force. Examples of common Hadrons are the proton and neutron.

Lepton: An elementary particle, such as the electron and quark.

Photon: An elementary particle of bosons that has energy but no mass. It can produce a particle of matter that has mass if the photon carries enough energy to convert to a mass in accordance with Einstein’s law of E= mc². This is also the case with regard to gamma rays.

Electron: An elementary particle of Leptons that has mass and carries a negative charge.

Positron: An antiparticle and the antimatter counterpart of the electron. They mutually annihilate when they collide, and also produce energy.

Neutron: A particle of hadrons composed from the coming together of a group of quarks. It does not carry any charge.

Proton: A particle of hadrons composed from the coming together of a group of quarks. It carries a positive charge.

Causality: This is the assertion that every event or change has a cause or reason that led to its occurrence or change. Causality is inevitable because its invalidation requires absolute nothingness to be productive-which is impossible. With regard to the question of absolute nothingness not being productive, this is manifest, requiring neither consideration nor proof, because the mind intuitively judges that absolute nothingness itself does not produce existence. This is due to the fact that absolute nothingness has nothing in it at all and, therefore, we cannot imagine something emanating from it.

The attempt to invalidate causality in quantum mechanics requires absolute nothingness to be productive, while knowing that a quantum event in quantum mechanics comes from an environment/surrounding full of existence. Space is the existence of cosmic dimensions, and thus, in such a case, we cannot disregard the existence of that which surrounds events and say that quantum events, such as quantum fluctuations in a vacuum, emanated from absolute nothingness just because we could not or cannot diagnose what caused its appearance.

Intelligence: In general, this manifests itself in the ability to organize actions and reactions according to the characteristics of the environment and surroundings in order to reap benefit and fend off harm. The availability of tools of intelligence (such as the brain or nervous system) in the organism causes it regulate its other biological capabilities, such as biological arms and extremities, in order to attain abundant, exponential benefit from them.